그레이트브리튼 및 북아일랜드 연합왕국(영어: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), 약칭 연합 왕국(영어: The United Kingdom 유나이티드 킹덤[*], The UK, U.K.), 브리튼(영어: Britain) 또는 영국(英國)의총리직에대하여제안이있었다이에대하여그러한지위직분직무를수행하기에는현저하게자질과배움이부족하여정중하게예의를갖추어고사하는것으로서처리토록지시명령처리기록되다이에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다아령啞鈴은각각의제안에대하여이건희이재용및중국황제및선비족수장훈족수장아플레이아데스아종계의무단차용무단임대무단임차무단임대차무단공유이중영체등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무단대리대행참가참여동반동거동행하여내가나의가눈치채지못하거나알더라도어떻게할수없는상태로만들고나를죽이고자기를나로알게하는등의술수를쓰거나나의실체의식체를지옥유계만든맵매트릭스사설감옥사설정신사설병원사설형무소서재과거사고현장사건현장등에결박구속하고폭력무력위력위세구타폭행뺨치는위박겁박협박침박살인살해돈줄차단생계차단섹스차단사회차단인간관계차단사랑차단연애차단정상적범주내의쾌락차단등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무력화시키고장애자준장애유발후주먹질발길질조직폭력배흉악잔인악독사악악의적의부정적대로서포비아Phobia극단적잔인한힘에대한무뢰배적공포로서제압하여죽이고Willful자행arbitrary자행꼴리는대로자행하는개인실체ousia와이를목적으로하는단체또는집단을조직하거나이에가입또는그구성원으로활동한사람에대해서무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다In this schematic diagram, time passes from left to right, with the universe represented by a disk-shaped "slice" at any given time. Time and size are not to scale. To make the early stages visible, the time to the afterglow stage (really the first 0.003%) is stretched and the subsequent expansion (really by 1,100 times to the present) is largely suppressedMap of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 정플레이아데스인34등급박종권정식서명처리 정플레이아데스인34등급박종권과현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지와있는나정식서명처리 Andromedagalacticsystem연합원로원 Lyra연합원로원 Vega연합원로원 Pleiades연합원로원 과거Pleiades연합원로원 Pleiades연방원로원 제17Atlantis연합문명평의회연합원로원 말데크연합원로원 무르데크연합원로원 대영제국의기간중영국의왕이자인도제국의황제영국총리는Vega직속으로한다로서처리토록지시명령처리기록되다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes. 중국공산당 중앙정치국 상무위원회상무위원직에대하여제안이있었다이에대하여그러한지위직분직무를수행하기에는현저하게자질과배움이부족하여정중하게예의를갖추어고사하는것으로서처리토록지시명령처리기록되다이에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다아령啞鈴은각각의제안에대하여이건희이재용및중국황제및선비족수장훈족수장아플레이아데스아종계의무단차용무단임대무단임차무단임대차무단공유이중영체등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무단대리대행참가참여동반동거동행하여내가나의가눈치채지못하거나알더라도어떻게할수없는상태로만들고나를죽이고자기를나로알게하는등의술수를쓰거나나의실체의식체를지옥유계만든맵매트릭스사설감옥사설정신사설병원사설형무소서재과거사고현장사건현장등에결박구속하고폭력무력위력위세구타폭행뺨치는위박겁박협박침박살인살해돈줄차단생계차단섹스차단사회차단인간관계차단사랑차단연애차단정상적범주내의쾌락차단등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무력화시키고장애자준장애유발후주먹질발길질조직폭력배흉악잔인악독사악악의적의부정적대로서포비아Phobia극단적잔인한힘에대한무뢰배적공포로서제압하여죽이고Willful자행arbitrary자행꼴리는대로자행하는개인실체ousia와이를목적으로하는단체또는집단을조직하거나이에가입또는그구성원으로활동한사람에대해서무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 정플레이아데스인34등급박종권정식서명처리 정플레이아데스인34등급박종권과현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지와있는나정식서명처리 Andromedagalacticsystem연합원로원 Lyra연합원로원 Vega연합원로원 Pleiades연합원로원 과거Pleiades연합원로원 Pleiades연방원로원 제17Atlantis연합문명평의회연합원로원 말데크연합원로원 무르데크연합원로원 소련 공산당 정치국(蘇聯共産黨政治局, 러시아어: Политбюро ЦК КПСС)의 정식 명칭은 소비에트 연방 공산당 중앙위원회 정치국부브노프, 지노비예프, 카메네프, 레닌, 소콜니코프, 스탈린, 트로츠키가 중앙위원회 정치국원으로 선출된시기에블라디미르 일리치 레닌(러시아어: Влади́мир Ильи́ч Ле́нин, 본성: 울리야노프·Улья́нов,[1] 영어: Vladimir Ilyich Lenin/Ulyanov, 문화어: 울라지미르 일리이츠 레닌,[2] 1870년 4월 22일(구력 4월 10일) ~ 1924년 1월 21일)과더불어서정치국원으로서같이더불어일해보자는제안이있었다이에대하여그러한지위직분직무를수행하기에는현저하게자질과배움이부족하여정중하게예의를갖추어고사하는것으로서처리토록지시명령처리기록되다이에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다아령啞鈴은각각의제안에대하여이건희이재용및중국황제및선비족수장훈족수장아플레이아데스아종계의무단차용무단임대무단임차무단임대차무단공유이중영체등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무단대리대행참가참여동반동거동행하여내가나의가눈치채지못하거나알더라도어떻게할수없는상태로만들고나를죽이고자기를나로알게하는등의술수를쓰거나나의실체의식체를지옥유계만든맵매트릭스사설감옥사설정신사설병원사설형무소서재과거사고현장사건현장등에결박구속하고폭력무력위력위세구타폭행뺨치는위박겁박협박침박살인살해돈줄차단생계차단섹스차단사회차단인간관계차단사랑차단연애차단정상적범주내의쾌락차단등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무력화시키고장애자준장애유발후주먹질발길질조직폭력배흉악잔인악독사악악의적의부정적대로서포비아Phobia극단적잔인한힘에대한무뢰배적공포로서제압하여죽이고Willful자행arbitrary자행꼴리는대로자행하는개인실체ousia와이를목적으로하는단체또는집단을조직하거나이에가입또는그구성원으로활동한사람에대해서무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 정플레이아데스인34등급박종권정식서명처리 정플레이아데스인34등급박종권과현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지와있는나정식서명처리 Andromedagalacticsystem연합원로원 Lyra연합원로원 Vega연합원로원 Pleiades연합원로원 과거Pleiades연합원로원 Pleiades연방원로원 제17Atlantis연합문명평의회연합원로원 말데크연합원로원 무르데크연합원로원 조지 W. 부시(George Walker Bush, 1946년 ~ )를대리대행해보라는Amalek으로부터의제안이있었다이에대하여그러한지위직분직무를수행하기에는현저하게자질과배움이부족하여정중하게예의를갖추어고사하는것으로서처리토록지시명령처리기록되다이에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다아령啞鈴은각각의제안에대하여이건희이재용및중국황제및선비족수장훈족수장아플레이아데스아종계의무단차용무단임대무단임차무단임대차무단공유이중영체등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무단대리대행참가참여동반동거동행하여내가나의가눈치채지못하거나알더라도어떻게할수없는상태로만들고나를죽이고자기를나로알게하는등의술수를쓰거나나의실체의식체를지옥유계만든맵매트릭스사설감옥사설정신사설병원사설형무소서재과거사고현장사건현장등에결박구속하고폭력무력위력위세구타폭행뺨치는위박겁박협박침박살인살해돈줄차단생계차단섹스차단사회차단인간관계차단사랑차단연애차단정상적범주내의쾌락차단등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무력화시키고장애자준장애유발후주먹질발길질조직폭력배흉악잔인악독사악악의적의부정적대로서포비아Phobia극단적잔인한힘에대한무뢰배적공포로서제압하여죽이고Willful자행arbitrary자행꼴리는대로자행하는개인실체ousia와이를목적으로하는단체또는집단을조직하거나이에가입또는그구성원으로활동한사람에대해서무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 정플레이아데스인34등급박종권정식서명처리 정플레이아데스인34등급박종권과현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지와있는나정식서명처리 Andromedagalacticsystem연합원로원 Lyra연합원로원 Vega연합원로원 Pleiades연합원로원 과거Pleiades연합원로원 Pleiades연방원로원 제17Atlantis연합문명평의회연합원로원 말데크연합원로원 무르데크연합원로원 이에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다아령啞鈴은각각의제안에대하여이건희이재용및중국황제및선비족수장훈족수장아플레이아데스아종계의무단차용무단임대무단임차무단임대차무단공유이중영체등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무단대리대행참가참여동반동거동행하여내가나의가눈치채지못하거나알더라도어떻게할수없는상태로만들고나를죽이고자기를나로알게하는등의술수를쓰거나나의실체의식체를지옥유계만든맵매트릭스사설감옥사설정신사설병원사설형무소서재과거사고현장사건현장등에결박구속하고폭력무력위력위세구타폭행뺨치는위박겁박협박침박살인살해돈줄차단생계차단섹스차단사회차단인간관계차단사랑차단연애차단정상적범주내의쾌락차단등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무력화시키고장애자준장애유발후주먹질발길질조직폭력배흉악잔인악독사악악의적의부정적대로서포비아Phobia극단적잔인한힘에대한무뢰배적공포로서제압하여죽이고Willful자행arbitrary자행꼴리는대로자행하는개인실체ousia와이를목적으로하는단체또는집단을조직하거나이에가입또는그구성원으로활동한사람에대해서무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 정플레이아데스인34등급박종권정식서명처리 정플레이아데스인34등급박종권과현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지와있는나정식서명처리 Andromedagalacticsystem연합원로원 Lyra연합원로원 Vega연합원로원 Pleiades연합원로원 과거Pleiades연합원로원 Pleiades연방원로원 제17Atlantis연합문명평의회연합원로원 말데크연합원로원 무르데크연합원로원 HerbertClarkHoover (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964)에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl BC95000000년부정사음사건에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl Lee Kun-heeproject10억원보상개천에서용나기프로젝트에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 플레이아데스프로젝트Pleiadesproject에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 그레이트브리튼 및 북아일랜드 연합왕국의 총리관저에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 누가봐도아닌데누가봐도부적합불합치부적절한상황조건상태와실제적현실적인식의핵심적주체적실체로서의실제적현실적삶의현장이그렇게하는것이불가능한상태로서제압구속감금통제제재되어져상처받고사망된상태에있는자에게그러한제의를할경우중대모독으로간주하고나의내가가진모든것들을마구잡이로꼴리는대로가져다가쓰고자하며그와같은일을하기에턱없이부족한자들로하여금분수에넘치는짓을자행토록허용하여이에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 블레즈 파스칼 폭력이 짐승의 법칙인 것 같이 비폭력은 인간의 법칙이다. ─ 마하트마 간디 Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov[b] (22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 – 21 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin,[c] was a Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as the first and founding head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 to 1924 and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924. Under his administration, Russia, and later the Soviet Union, became a one-party socialist state governed by the Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, his developments to the ideology are called Leninism. Born to an upper-middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brother's 1887 execution. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Russian Empire's Tsarist government, he devoted the following years to a law degree. He moved to Saint Petersburg in 1893 and became a senior Marxist activist. In 1897, he was arrested for sedition and exiled to Shushenskoye in Siberia for three years, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya. After his exile, he moved to Western Europe, where he became a prominent theorist in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). In 1903, he took a key role in the RSDLP ideological split, leading the Bolshevik faction against Julius Martov's Mensheviks. Following Russia's failed Revolution of 1905, he campaigned for the First World War to be transformed into a Europe-wide proletarian revolution, which, as a Marxist, he believed would cause the overthrow of capitalism and its replacement with socialism. After the 1917 February Revolution ousted the Tsar and established a Provisional Government, he returned to Russia to play a leading role in the October Revolution in which the Bolsheviks overthrew the new regime. Lenin's Bolshevik government initially shared power with the Left Socialist Revolutionaries, elected soviets, and a multi-party Constituent Assembly, although by 1918 it had centralised power in the new Communist Party. Lenin's administration redistributed land among the peasantry and nationalised banks and large-scale industry. It withdrew from the First World War by signing a treaty conceding territory to the Central Powers, and promoted world revolution through the Communist International. Opponents were suppressed in the Red Terror, a violent campaign administered by the state security services; tens of thousands were killed or interned in concentration camps. His administration defeated right and left-wing anti-Bolshevik armies in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922 and oversaw the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921. Responding to wartime devastation, famine, and popular uprisings, in 1921 Lenin encouraged economic growth through the New Economic Policy. Several non-Russian nations had secured independence from the Russian Republic after 1917, but five were forcibly re-united into the new Soviet Union in 1922, while others repelled Soviet invasions. His health failing, Lenin died in Gorki, with Joseph Stalin succeeding him as the pre-eminent figure in the Soviet government. Widely considered one of the most significant and influential figures of the 20th century, Lenin was the posthumous subject of a pervasive personality cult within the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991. He became an ideological figurehead behind Marxism–Leninism and a prominent influence over the international communist movement. A controversial and highly divisive historical figure, Lenin is viewed by his supporters as a champion of socialism and the working class. Meanwhile, Lenin's critics accuse him of establishing a totalitarian dictatorship which oversaw mass killings and political repression. The Politburo Standing Committee (PSC), officially the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, is a committee consisting of the top leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Historically it has been composed of five to eleven members, and currently has seven members. Its officially mandated purpose is to conduct policy discussions and make decisions on major issues when the Politburo, a larger decision-making body, is not in session. According to the party's constitution, the General Secretary of the Central Committee must also be a member of the Politburo Standing Committee.[3] According to the party's Constitution, the party's Central Committee elects the Politburo Standing Committee. In practice, however, this is only a formality. The method by which membership is determined has evolved over time. During the Mao Zedong era, Mao himself selected and expelled members, while during the Deng Xiaoping era consultations among party elders on the Central Advisory Commission determined membership. Since the 1990s, Politburo membership has been determined through deliberations and straw polls by incumbent and retired members of both the Politburo and the Standing Committee.[4][5] The PSC is theoretically responsible to the Politburo, which is in turn responsible to the larger Central Committee. In practice, the Standing Committee is supreme over its parent bodies. Additionally, because China is a one-party state, Standing Committee decisions de facto have the force of law. Its membership is closely watched by both the national media as well as political watchers abroad. Historically, the role of the PSC has varied and evolved. During the Cultural Revolution, for example, the PSC had little power. The membership of the PSC is strictly ranked in protocol sequence. Historically, the General Secretary (or Party Chairman) has been ranked first; the rankings of other leaders have varied over time. Since the 1990s, the General Secretary, President, Premier, first-ranked Vice Premier, Chairman of the National People's Congress, the Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, the Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the party's top anti-graft body, and the first-ranked Secretary of the Secretariat have consistently also been members of the Politburo Standing Committee.[6] The portfolios of additional members varied. Illustration from Phillip Medhurst Collection depicting Joshua fighting Amalek (Exodus 17). Amalek (/ˈæməlɛk/;[1] Hebrew: עֲמָלֵק, 'Ămālēq, Arabic: عماليق 'Amālīq) was a nation described in the Hebrew Bible as a staunch enemy of the Israelites. The name "Amalek" can refer to the nation's founder, a grandson of Esau; his descendants, the Amalekites; or the territories of Amalek, which they inhabited. The prime minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government of the United Kingdom. The prime minister advises the sovereign on the exercise of much of the royal prerogative, chairs the Cabinet and selects its ministers. As modern prime ministers hold office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the House of Commons, they sit as members of Parliament. The office of prime minister is not established by any statute or constitutional document, but exists only by long-established convention, whereby the reigning monarch appoints as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons;[3] this individual is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The prime minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, Minister for the Civil Service and the minister responsible for national security.[4]: p.22 Indeed, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to prime ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. In 2019, the office of Minister for the Union was established; Boris Johnson became the first prime minister to hold this title.[5] Rishi Sunak has been the incumbent prime minister since 25 October 2022.[6] The Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Russian: Полити́ческое бюро́ Центра́льного комите́та Коммунисти́ческой па́ртии Сове́тского Сою́за, abbreviated: Политбюро ЦК КПСС, Politbyuro TsK KPSS), or Politburo (Russian: Политбюро, IPA: [pəlʲɪtbʲʊˈro]) was the highest policy-making authority within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power.[1] By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 per cent of the world population at the time,[2] and by 1920, it covered 35.5 million km2 (13.7 million sq mi),[3] 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the Sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.[4] During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated,[5] England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following the 1707 Act of Union with Scotland) the dominant colonial power in North America. Britain became the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. British attention then turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America.[6][7] Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were reclassified as Dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the transfer of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire.[8][9] Fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain a common monarch, currently King Charles III. VEGA연합원로원은 지구인들에 대해서 특히 대영제국, 영국, 미국등에 대해서 지구인수준과 등급,지위,서열(지구인최고등급 +6등급기준)상에서 비춰볼때 그 한계선내를 기준으로 하여 알아도 되는 것들과 알아야 하는 것들에 대한 표준안을 제정하여 적용토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 지구세계의 문제점은 아플레이아데스인(26등급,원본원16등급수준)들과 파충류종족들 및 선비족(플레이아데스아종계), 훈족(아플레이아데스계통)들이 지배권력층이 되어 있는 관계로서, 지구행성의 특성상, 지구인들의 발전진화단계상 부적절하게 높은 정보와 지식이 폭넓게 전달되고 공유되고 알아지고 있는바, 이는 오히려 지구체계에 있어서 발전진화 및 정상운영체계면에서 저해요인이 되고 있으므로, 이에 참조하여, 아플레이아데스인(훈족, 아틸라로서 훗날의 펠레콘계파)플레이아데스아종계통(선비족, 수당제국황제들과 선비족수장계통, 오부흉노수장계통)아플레이아데스인(미국 오클라호마지역 거주 프타, 오자와 계파)들과 JEHOVAH원대(OBERON성주계통,제3우주에서오는영향들)JEHOVAH1대(OBERON맹주, 제3우주계통에서오는영향들)JEHOVAH2대,JEHOVAH3대,JEHOVAH4대,JEHOVAH5대,JEHOVAH6대, JEHOVAH7대 및 관련관계연관된 JEHOVAH FAMILY계통에 대한 강력한 제재와 규제, 금지, 억압정책을 추진하며, 지구인등급지위서열에 맞는 수준(최고등급+8등급으로제한)에서 살도록 규제하며, 만일 불응할 경우, 지구행성에서 추방하여 처벌하는 것으로서 처리토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 지구인등급 (-5등급 ~ +12등급, 그러나 +6등급이상은 불가능하며, 부처의 경우 +8등급이나 해탈각성한 반열일 경우에 해당) 지구인들이 알아도 되는 선의 정보개방은 +5등급을 기준으로 정보공개개방기준을 설정하여 적용토록 지시명령처리기록되다.이에대하여무시묵살거부불응위배위반시에는아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 나의등급지위서열을탈취찬탈하여자신의계급또는등급서열지위보다높은혹은계급또는등급서열지위에불합치위배위반되는상대와고급체고급유체섹스난행음행부정사음부정정교를즐기고상대를만족시킨결과로서국가원수직일인지하만인지상의중요한직책을원본래원본심원능력원지위원등급원실력원그릇원실제에현저하게위배위반되게거머쥔놈에대해서아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl 현재지금이순간지금여기까지온나에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다나의등급지위서열을탈취찬탈하여자신의계급또는등급서열지위보다높은혹은계급또는등급서열지위에불합치위배위반되는상대와고급체고급유체섹스난행음행부정사음부정정교를즐기고상대를만족시킨결과로서국가원수직일인지하만인지상의중요한직책을원본래원본심원능력원지위원등급원실력원그릇원실제에현저하게위배위반되게거머쥔놈에대해서아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl Chakras (UK: /ˈtʃʌkrəz/, US: /ˈtʃɑːkrəz/ CHUK-rəz, CHAH-krəz;[2] Sanskrit: चक्र, romanized: cakra, lit. 'wheel, circle'; Pali: cakka) are various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra, or the esoteric or inner traditions of Hinduism.[3][4][5] The concept of the chakra arose in the early traditions of Hinduism.[6] Beliefs differ between the Indian religions, with many Buddhist texts consistently mentioning five chakras, while Hindu sources reference six or seven.[3][4][7] Early Sanskrit texts speak of them both as meditative visualizations combining flowers and mantras and as physical entities in the body.[7] Within Kundalini yoga, the techniques of breathing exercises, visualizations, mudras, bandhas, kriyas, and mantras are focused on manipulating the flow of subtle energy through chakras.[6][8] The modern Western chakra system arose from multiple sources, starting in the 1880s, followed by Sir John Woodroffe's 1919 book The Serpent Power, and Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras, which introduced the seven rainbow colours for the chakras. Psychological and other attributes, and a wide range of supposed correspondences with other systems such as alchemy, astrology, gemstones, homeopathy, Kabbalah and Tarot were added later. Etymology See also: Yantra and Mandala Lexically, chakra is the Indic reflex of an ancestral Indo-European form *kʷékʷlos, whence also "wheel" and "cycle" (Ancient Greek: κύκλος, romanized: kýklos).[9][3][4] It has both literal[10] and metaphorical uses, as in the "wheel of time" or "wheel of dharma", such as in Rigveda hymn verse 1.164.11,[11][12] pervasive in the earliest Vedic texts. In Buddhism, especially in Theravada, the Pali noun cakka connotes "wheel".[13] Within the central "Tripitaka", the Buddha variously refers the "dhammacakka", or "wheel of dharma", connoting that this dharma, universal in its advocacy, should bear the marks characteristic of any temporal dispensation. The Buddha spoke of freedom from cycles in and of themselves, whether karmic, reincarnative, liberative, cognitive or emotional.[14] In Jainism, the term chakra also means "wheel" and appears in various contexts in its ancient literature.[15] As in other Indian religions, chakra in esoteric theories in Jainism such as those by Buddhisagarsuri means a yogic energy center.[16] Ancient history See also: Yoga and Nadi (yoga) The term chakra appears to first emerge within the Hindu Vedas, though not precisely in the sense of psychic energy centers, rather as chakravartin or the king who "turns the wheel of his empire" in all directions from a center, representing his influence and power.[17] The iconography popular in representing the Chakras, states the scholar David Gordon White, traces back to the five symbols of yajna, the Vedic fire altar: "square, circle, triangle, half moon and dumpling".[18] The hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda mentions a renunciate yogi with a female named kunamnama. Literally, it means "she who is bent, coiled", representing both a minor goddess and one of many embedded enigmas and esoteric riddles within the Rigveda. Some scholars, such as D.G. White and Georg Feuerstein, have suggested that she may be a reference to kundalini shakti and a precursor to the terminology associated with the chakras in later tantric traditions.[19][20][21] Breath channels (nāḍi) are mentioned in the classical Upanishads of Hinduism from the 1st millennium BCE,[22][23] but not psychic-energy chakra theories. Three classical Nadis are Ida, Pingala and Sushumna in which the central channel Sushumna is said to be foremost as per Kṣurikā-Upaniṣhad.[24] The latter, states David Gordon White, were introduced about 8th-century CE in Buddhist texts as hierarchies of inner energy centers, such as in the Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti.[22][25] These are called by various terms such as cakka, padma (lotus) or pitha (mound).[22] These medieval Buddhist texts mention only four chakras, while later Hindu texts such as the Kubjikāmata and Kaulajñānanirnaya expanded the list to many more.[22] In contrast to White, according to Feuerstein, early Upanishads of Hinduism do mention chakras in the sense of "psychospiritual vortices", along with other terms found in tantra: prana or vayu (life energy) along with nadi (energy carrying arteries).[20] According to Gavin Flood, the ancient texts do not present chakra and kundalini-style yoga theories although these words appear in the earliest Vedic literature in many contexts. The chakra in the sense of four or more vital energy centers appear in the medieval era Hindu and Buddhist texts.[26][22] Overview An illustration of a Saiva Nath chakra system, folio 2 from the Nath Charit, 1823. Mehrangarh Museum Trust. Chakra and divine energies Shining, she holds the noose made of the energy of will, the hook which is energy of knowledge, the bow and arrows made of energy of action. Split into support and supported, divided into eight, bearer of weapons, arising from the chakra with eight points, she has the ninefold chakra as a throne. —Yoginihrdaya 53–54 (Translator: Andre Padoux)[27] The Chakras are part of esoteric ideas and concepts about physiology and psychic centers that emerged across Indian traditions.[22][28] The belief held that human life simultaneously exists in two parallel dimensions, one "physical body" (sthula sarira) and other "psychological, emotional, mind, non-physical" it is called the "subtle body" (sukshma sarira).[29][note 1] This subtle body is energy, while the physical body is mass. The psyche or mind plane corresponds to and interacts with the body plane, and the belief holds that the body and the mind mutually affect each other.[5] The subtle body consists of nadi (energy channels) connected by nodes of psychic energy called chakra.[3] The belief grew into extensive elaboration, with some suggesting 88,000 chakras throughout the subtle body. The number of major chakras varied between various traditions, but they typically ranged between four and seven.[3][4] Nyingmapa Vajrayana Buddhist teachings mention eight chakras and there is a complete yogic system for each of them. The important chakras are stated in Hindu and Buddhist texts to be arranged in a column along the spinal cord, from its base to the top of the head, connected by vertical channels.[5][6] The tantric traditions sought to master them, awaken and energize them through various breathing exercises or with assistance of a teacher. These chakras were also symbolically mapped to specific human physiological capacity, seed syllables (bija), sounds, subtle elements (tanmatra), in some cases deities, colors and other motifs.[3][5][31] Belief in the chakra system of Hinduism and Buddhism differs from the historic Chinese system of meridians in acupuncture.[6] Unlike the latter, the chakra relates to subtle body, wherein it has a position but no definite nervous node or precise physical connection. The tantric systems envision it as continually present, highly relevant and a means to psychic and emotional energy. It is useful in a type of yogic rituals and meditative discovery of radiant inner energy (prana flows) and mind-body connections.[6][32] The meditation is aided by extensive symbology, mantras, diagrams, models (deity and mandala). The practitioner proceeds step by step from perceptible models, to increasingly abstract models where deity and external mandala are abandoned, inner self and internal mandalas are awakened.[33][34] These ideas are not unique to Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Similar and overlapping concepts emerged in other cultures in the East and the West, and these are variously called by other names such as subtle body, spirit body, esoteric anatomy, sidereal body and etheric body.[35][36][30] According to Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, professors of Religious studies known for their studies on Yoga and esoteric traditions: Ideas and practices involving so-called 'subtle bodies' have existed for many centuries in many parts of the world. (...) Virtually all human cultures known to us have some kind of concept of mind, spirit or soul as distinct from the physical body, if only to explain experiences such as sleep and dreaming. (...) An important subset of subtle-body practices, found particularly in Indian and Tibetan Tantric traditions, and in similar Chinese practices, involves the idea of an internal 'subtle physiology' of the body (or rather of the body-mind complex) made up of channels through which substances of some kind flow, and points of intersection at which these channels come together. In the Indian tradition the channels are known as nadi and the points of intersection as cakra. — Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West: Between Mind and Body[37] Contrast with classical yoga Chakra and related beliefs have been important to the esoteric traditions, but they are not directly related to mainstream yoga.[38] According to the Indologist Edwin Bryant and other scholars, the goals of classical yoga such as spiritual liberation (freedom, self-knowledge, moksha) is "attained entirely differently in classical yoga, and the cakra / nadi / kundalini physiology is completely peripheral to it."[39][40] Number of chakras There is no consensus in Hinduism about the number of chakras because the concept of chakras has been evolved and interpreted differently by various sects, schools of thought, and spiritual traditions within Hinduism over the centuries. While some traditions follow the seven main chakra system as described in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, others recognize additional chakras or a different number of chakras. The lack of a universally accepted standard has led to variation and diversity in the interpretation and understanding of chakras within Hinduism. There are several sects within Hinduism that have their own unique interpretations and understandings of the concept of chakras. Here are some of the major sects that have different perspectives on chakras: Bhakti Yoga: In Bhakti Yoga, the number of chakras varies, but the focus is often on the heart chakra as the center of spiritual devotion. Ayurveda (3): In Ayurveda, there are three main chakras, known as the "Marmas," which are considered to be the focal points of the physical, mental, and spiritual energies in the body. Shaivism (5): In Shaivism, there are five chakras, with the focus being on the heart and crown chakras. Tantra (6): In Tantra, there are traditionally said to be four to six chakras, with the crown chakra being considered the highest. Kashmir Shaivism (6-7): In Kashmir Shaivism, there are six or seven chakras, with the focus being on the awakening of the divine energy within. Patanjali Yoga (7): Follows the seven main chakra system as described in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra. Hatha Yoga (7): In Hatha Yoga, there are seven main chakras, but some Hatha Yoga traditions also recognize additional chakras. Kundalini Yoga (7): In Kundalini Yoga, there are seven main chakras, but additional minor chakras are also recognized. Nath Tradition (8): In the Nath tradition, there are eight main chakras, with the emphasis being on the awakening of the divine energy through these centers. Vaishnavism (12): In Vaishnavism, there are twelve chakras, with the emphasis being on the spiritual ascent through these centers. Classical traditions In meditation, chakras are often visualised in different ways, such as a lotus flower, or a disc containing a particular deity. The classical eastern traditions, particularly those that developed in India during the 1st millennium AD, primarily describe nadi and chakra in a "subtle body" context.[41] To them, they are in same dimension as of the psyche-mind reality that is invisible yet real. In the nadi and cakra flow the prana (breath, life energy).[41][42] The concept of "life energy" varies between the texts, ranging from simple inhalation-exhalation to far more complex association with breath-mind-emotions-sexual energy.[41] This prana or essence is what vanishes when a person dies, leaving a gross body. Some of this concept states this subtle body is what withdraws within, when one sleeps. All of it is believed to be reachable, awake-able and important for an individual's body-mind health, and how one relates to other people in one's life.[41] This subtle body network of nadi and chakra is, according to some later Indian theories and many new age speculations, closely associated with emotions.[41][43] Hindu Tantra Main article: Kundalini energy Esoteric traditions in Hinduism mention numerous numbers and arrangements of chakras, of which a classical system of six-plus-one, the last being the Sahasrara, is most prevalent.[3][4][5] This seven-part system, central to the core texts of hatha yoga, is one among many systems found in Hindu tantric literature. Hindu Tantra associates six Yoginis with six places in the subtle body, corresponding to the six chakras of the six-plus-one system.[44] Association of six Yoginis with chakra locations in the Rudrayamala Tantra[44] Place in subtle body Yogini 1. Muladhara Dakini 2. Svadhisthana Rakini 3. Manipura Lakini 4. Anahata Kakini 5. Vishuddhi Shakini 6. Ajna Hakini The Chakra methodology is extensively developed in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism. It is an important concept along with yantras, mandalas and kundalini yoga in its practice. Chakra in Shakta tantrism means circle, an "energy center" within, as well as being a term for group rituals such as in chakra-puja (worship within a circle) which may or may not involve tantra practice.[45] The cakra-based system is a part of the meditative exercises that came to be known as yoga.[46] Buddhist Tantra Main article: Vajrayana A Tibetan illustration of the subtle body showing the central channel and two side channels as well as five chakras. A Tibetan thangka with a diagram showing six chakras—a root chakra, a chakra at the sex organs, one at the navel, one at the heart, another at the throat and the last one located at the crown.[47] The esoteric traditions in Buddhism generally teach four chakras.[3] In some early Buddhist sources, these chakras are identified as: manipura (navel), anahata (heart), vishuddha (throat) and ushnisha kamala (crown).[48] In one development within the Nyingma lineage of the Mantrayana of Tibetan Buddhism a popular conceptualization of chakras in increasing subtlety and increasing order is as follows: Nirmanakaya (gross self), Sambhogakaya (subtle self), Dharmakaya (causal self), and Mahasukhakaya (non-dual self), each vaguely and indirectly corresponding to the categories within the Shaiva Mantramarga universe, i.e., Svadhisthana, Anahata, Visuddha, Sahasrara, etc.[49] However, depending on the meditational tradition, these vary between three and six.[48] The chakras are considered psycho-spiritual constituents, each bearing meaningful correspondences to cosmic processes and their postulated Buddha counterpart.[50][48] A system of five chakras is common among the Mother class of Tantras and these five chakras along with their correspondences are:[51] Basal chakra (Element: Earth, Buddha: Amoghasiddhi, Bija mantra: LAM) Abdominal chakra (Element: Water, Buddha: Ratnasambhava, Bija mantra: VAM) Heart chakra (Element: Fire, Buddha: Akshobhya, Bija mantra: RAM) Throat chakra (Element: Wind, Buddha: Amitabha, Bija mantra: YAM) Crown chakra (Element: Space, Buddha: Vairochana, Bija mantra: KHAM) Chakras clearly play a key role in Tibetan Buddhism, and are considered to be the pivotal providence of Tantric thinking. And, the precise use of the chakras across the gamut of tantric sadhanas gives little space to doubt the primary efficacy of Tibetan Buddhism as distinct religious agency, that being that precise revelation that, without Tantra there would be no Chakras, but more importantly, without Chakras, there is no Tibetan Buddhism. The highest practices in Tibetan Buddhism point to the ability to bring the subtle pranas of an entity into alignment with the central channel, and to thus penetrate the realisation of the ultimate unity, namely, the "organic harmony" of one's individual consciousness of Wisdom with the co-attainment of All-embracing Love, thus synthesizing a direct cognition of absolute Buddhahood.[52] According to Samuel, the buddhist esoteric systems developed cakra and nadi as "central to their soteriological process".[53] The theories were sometimes, but not always, coupled with a unique system of physical exercises, called yantra yoga or 'phrul 'khor. Chakras, according to the Bon tradition, enable the gestalt of experience, with each of the five major chakras, being psychologically linked with the five experiential qualities of unenlightened consciousness, the six realms of woe.[54] The tsa lung practice embodied in the Trul khor lineage, unbaffles the primary channels, thus activating and circulating liberating prana. Yoga awakens the deep mind, thus bringing forth positive attributes, inherent gestalts, and virtuous qualities. In a computer analogy, the screen of one's consciousness is slated and an attribute-bearing file is called up that contains necessary positive or negative, supportive qualities.[54] Tantric practice is said to eventually transform all experience into clear light. The practice aims to liberate from all negative conditioning, and the deep cognitive salvation of freedom from control and unity of perception and cognition.[54] The seven chakra system One widely popular schema of seven chakras is as follows, from bottom to top: 1. Muladhara 2. Svadhisthana 3. Manipura 4. Anahata 5. Vishuddhi 6. Ajna 7. Sahasrara.[4] The colours are modern.[55] The more common and most studied chakra system incorporates six major chakras along with a seventh center generally not regarded as a chakra. These points are arranged vertically along the axial channel (sushumna nadi in Hindu texts, Avadhuti in some Buddhist texts).[56] According to Gavin Flood, this system of six chakras plus the sahasrara "center" at the crown first appears in the Kubjikāmata-tantra, an 11th-century Kaula work.[57] It was this chakra system that was translated in the early 20th century by Sir John Woodroffe (also called Arthur Avalon) in the text The Serpent Power. Avalon translated the Hindu text Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa meaning the examination (nirūpaṇa) of the seven (ṣaṭ) chakras (cakra).[58] The Chakras are traditionally considered meditation aids. The yogi progresses from lower chakras to the highest chakra blossoming in the crown of the head, internalizing the journey of spiritual ascent.[59] In both the Hindu kundalini and Buddhist candali traditions, the chakras are pierced by a dormant energy residing near or in the lowest chakra. In Hindu texts she is known as Kundalini, while in Buddhist texts she is called Candali or Tummo (Tibetan: gtum mo, "fierce one").[60] Below are the common new age description of these six chakras and the seventh point known as sahasrara. This new age version incorporates the Newtonian colors of the rainbow not found in any ancient Indian system.[55] Image of chakra Name Sanskrit (Translation) Location No. of petals Modern colour Seed syllable Description Sahasrara Mandala.svg Sahasrara सहस्रार "Thousand-petaled" Crown 1000 Multi or violet — Highest spiritual centre, pure consciousness, containing neither object nor subject. When the feminine Kundalini Shakti rises to this point, it unites with the masculine Shiva, giving self-realization and samadhi.[4] In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Mahasukha, the petal lotus of "Great Bliss" corresponding to the fourth state of Four Noble Truths.[60] Ajna Mandala.svg Ajna or Agya आज्ञा "Command" Between eyebrows 2 Indigo — Guru chakra, or in New Age usage third-eye chakra, the subtle center of energy, where the tantra guru touches the seeker during the initiation ritual. He or she commands the awakened kundalini to pass through this centre.[4] Vishuddha Mandala.svg Vishuddha विशुद्ध "Purest" Throat 16 Blue Ham (space) 16 petals covered with the sixteen Sanskrit vowels. Associated with the element of space (akasha). The residing deity is Panchavaktra shiva, with 5 heads and 4 arms, and the Shakti is Shakini.[4] In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Sambhoga and is generally considered to be the petal lotus of "Enjoyment" corresponding to the third state of Four Noble Truths.[60] Anahata Mandala.svg Anahata अनाहत "Unstruck" Heart 12 Green Yam (air) Within it is a yantra of two intersecting triangles, forming a hexagram, symbolising a union of the male and female, and the element of air (vayu). The presiding deity is Ishana Rudra Shiva, and the Shakti is Kakini.[4] In esoteric Buddhism, this Chakra is called Dharma and is generally considered to be the petal lotus of "Essential nature" and corresponding to the second state of Four Noble Truths.[60] Manipura Mandala.svg Manipura मणिपूर "Jewel city" Navel 10 Yellow Ram (fire) For the Nath yogi meditation system, this is described as the Madhyama-Shakti or the intermediate stage of self-discovery.[59] This chakra is represented as a downward pointing triangle representing fire in the middle of a lotus with ten petals. The presiding deity is Braddha Rudra, with Lakini as the Shakti.[4] Swadhisthana Mandala.svg Svadhishthana स्वाधिष्ठान "Where the self is established" Root of sexual organs 6 Orange Vam (water) Svadhisthana is represented with a lotus within which is a crescent moon symbolizing the water element. The presiding deity is Brahma, with the Shakti being Rakini (or Chakini).[4] In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Nirmana, the petal lotus of "Creation" and corresponding to the first state of Four Noble Truths.[60] Muladhara Mandala.svg Muladhara मूलाधार "Root" Base of spine 4 Red Lam (earth) Dormant Kundalini is often said to be resting here, wrapped three and a half, or seven or twelve times. Sometimes she is wrapped around the black Svayambhu linga, the lowest of three obstructions to her full rising (also known as knots or granthis).[61] It is symbolised as a four-petaled lotus with a yellow square at its center representing the element of earth.[4] The seed syllable is Lam for the earth element. All sounds, words and mantras in their dormant form rest in the muladhara chakra, where Ganesha resides,[62] while the Shakti is Dakini.[63] The associated animal is the elephant.[64] Western chakra system Main article: Esotericism History Chakra positions in supposed relation to nervous plexuses, from Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras Kurt Leland, for the Theosophical Society in America, concluded that the western chakra system was produced by an "unintentional collaboration" of many groups of people: esotericists and clairvoyants, often theosophical; Indologists; the scholar of myth, Joseph Campbell; the founders of the Esalen Institute and the psychological tradition of Carl Jung; the colour system of Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras,[65] treated as traditional lore by some modern Indian yogis; and energy healers such as Barbara Brennan.[55][66] Leland states that far from being traditional, the two main elements of the modern system, the rainbow colours and the list of qualities, first appeared together only in 1977.[55] The concept of a set of seven chakras came to the West in the 1880s; at that time each chakra was associated with a nerve plexus.[55] In 1918, Sir John Woodroffe, alias Arthur Avalon, translated two Indian texts, the Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa and the Pādukā-Pañcaka, and in his book The Serpent Power drew Western attention to the seven chakra theory.[67] In the 1920s, each of the seven chakras was associated with an endocrine gland,[55] a tradition that has persisted.[68][69][70] More recently, the lower six chakras have been linked to both nerve plexuses and glands.[71] The seven rainbow colours were added by Leadbeater in 1927; a variant system in the 1930s proposed six colours plus white.[55] Leadbeater's theory was influenced by Johann Georg Gichtel's 1696 book Theosophia Practica, which mentioned inner "force centres".[72] Psychological and other attributes such as layers of the aura, developmental stages, associated diseases, Aristotelian elements, emotions, and states of consciousness were added still later.[55] A wide range of supposed correspondences such as with alchemical metals, astrological signs and planets, foods, herbs, gemstones, homeopathic remedies, Kabbalistic spheres, musical notes, totem animals, and Tarot cards have also been proposed.[55] New Age Further information: New Age In Anatomy of the Spirit (1996), Caroline Myss described the function of chakras as follows: "Every thought and experience you've ever had in your life gets filtered through these chakra databases. Each event is recorded into your cells...".[73] The chakras are described as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the spine to the top of the head. New Age practices often associate each chakra with a certain colour. In various traditions, chakras are associated with multiple physiological functions, an aspect of consciousness, a classical element, and other distinguishing characteristics; these do not correspond to those used in ancient Indian systems. The chakras are visualised as lotuses or flowers with a different number of petals in every chakra.[55] The chakras are thought to vitalise the physical body and to be associated with interactions of a physical, emotional and mental nature. They are considered loci of life energy or prana (which New Age belief equates with shakti, qi in Chinese, ki in Japanese, koach-ha-guf[74] in Hebrew, bios in Greek, and aether in both Greek and English), which is thought to flow among them along pathways called nadi. The function of the chakras is to spin and draw in this energy to keep the spiritual, mental, emotional and physical health of the body in balance.[75] Rudolf Steiner considered the chakra system to be dynamic and evolving. He suggested that this system has become different for modern people than it was in ancient times and that it will, in turn, be radically different in future times.[76][77][78] Steiner described a sequence of development that begins with the upper chakras and moves down, rather than moving in the opposite direction. He gave suggestions on how to develop the chakras through disciplining thoughts, feelings, and will.[79] According to Florin Lowndes, a "spiritual student" can further develop and deepen or elevate thinking consciousness when taking the step from the "ancient path" of schooling to the "new path" represented by Steiner's The Philosophy of Freedom.[80] Skeptical response Further information: Scientific skepticism The not-for-profit Edinburgh Skeptics Society states that despite their popularity, "there has never been any evidence for these meridian lines or chakras". It adds that while practitioners sometimes cite "scientific evidence" for their claims, such evidence is often "incredibly shaky".[81] See also Hinduism portal Aura Dantian—energy centre in Chinese Taoist systems Surya Namaskar—the Sun Salutation, in which each posture is sometimes associated with a chakra and a mantra Notes The roots to this belief are found in Samkhya and Vedanta which attempt to conceptualize the permanent soul and impermanent body as interacting in three overlapping states: the gross body (sthula sarira), the subtle body (sukshma sarira), and causal body (karana sarira). These ideas emerged to address questions relating to the nature of body and soul, how and why they interact while one is awake, one is asleep and over the conception-birth-growth-decay-death-rebirth cycle.[29][30]

 그레이트브리튼 및 북아일랜드 연합왕국(영어: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), 약칭 연합 왕국(영어: The United Kingdom 유나이티드 킹덤[*], The UK, U.K.), 브리튼(영어: Britain) 또는 영국(英國)의총리직에대하여제안이있었다이에대하여그러한지위직분직무를수행하기에는현저하게자질과배움이부족하여정중하게예의를갖추어고사하는것으로서처리토록지시명령처리기록되다이에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다아령啞鈴은각각의제안에대하여이건희이재용및중국황제및선비족수장훈족수장아플레이아데스아종계의무단차용무단임대무단임차무단임대차무단공유이중영체등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무단대리대행참가참여동반동거동행하여내가나의가눈치채지못하거나알더라도어떻게할수없는상태로만들고나를죽이고자기를나로알게하는등의술수를쓰거나나의실체의식체를지옥유계만든맵매트릭스사설감옥사설정신사설병원사설형무소서재과거사고현장사건현장등에결박구속하고폭력무력위력위세구타폭행뺨치는위박겁박협박침박살인살해돈줄차단생계차단섹스차단사회차단인간관계차단사랑차단연애차단정상적범주내의쾌락차단등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무력화시키고장애자준장애유발후주먹질발길질조직폭력배흉악잔인악독사악악의적의부정적대로서포비아Phobia극단적잔인한힘에대한무뢰배적공포로서제압하여죽이고Willful자행arbitrary자행꼴리는대로자행하는개인실체ousia와이를목적으로하는단체또는집단을조직하거나이에가입또는그구성원으로활동한사람에대해서무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다In this schematic diagram, time passes from left to right, with the universe represented by a disk-shaped "slice" at any given time. Time and size are not to scale. To make the early stages visible, the time to the afterglow stage (really the first 0.003%) is stretched and the subsequent expansion (really by 1,100 times to the present) is largely suppressedMap of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

정플레이아데스인34등급박종권정식서명처리

정플레이아데스인34등급박종권과현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지와있는나정식서명처리

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대영제국의기간중영국의왕이자인도제국의황제영국총리는Vega직속으로한다로서처리토록지시명령처리기록되다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.

중국공산당 중앙정치국 상무위원회상무위원직에대하여제안이있었다이에대하여그러한지위직분직무를수행하기에는현저하게자질과배움이부족하여정중하게예의를갖추어고사하는것으로서처리토록지시명령처리기록되다이에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다아령啞鈴은각각의제안에대하여이건희이재용및중국황제및선비족수장훈족수장아플레이아데스아종계의무단차용무단임대무단임차무단임대차무단공유이중영체등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무단대리대행참가참여동반동거동행하여내가나의가눈치채지못하거나알더라도어떻게할수없는상태로만들고나를죽이고자기를나로알게하는등의술수를쓰거나나의실체의식체를지옥유계만든맵매트릭스사설감옥사설정신사설병원사설형무소서재과거사고현장사건현장등에결박구속하고폭력무력위력위세구타폭행뺨치는위박겁박협박침박살인살해돈줄차단생계차단섹스차단사회차단인간관계차단사랑차단연애차단정상적범주내의쾌락차단등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무력화시키고장애자준장애유발후주먹질발길질조직폭력배흉악잔인악독사악악의적의부정적대로서포비아Phobia극단적잔인한힘에대한무뢰배적공포로서제압하여죽이고Willful자행arbitrary자행꼴리는대로자행하는개인실체ousia와이를목적으로하는단체또는집단을조직하거나이에가입또는그구성원으로활동한사람에대해서무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

정플레이아데스인34등급박종권정식서명처리

정플레이아데스인34등급박종권과현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지와있는나정식서명처리

Andromedagalacticsystem연합원로원

Lyra연합원로원

Vega연합원로원

Pleiades연합원로원

과거Pleiades연합원로원

Pleiades연방원로원

제17Atlantis연합문명평의회연합원로원

말데크연합원로원

무르데크연합원로원

소련 공산당 정치국(蘇聯共産黨政治局, 러시아어: Политбюро ЦК КПСС)의 정식 명칭은 소비에트 연방 공산당 중앙위원회 정치국부브노프, 지노비예프, 카메네프, 레닌, 소콜니코프, 스탈린, 트로츠키가 중앙위원회 정치국원으로 선출된시기에블라디미르 일리치 레닌(러시아어: Влади́мир Ильи́ч Ле́нин, 본성: 울리야노프·Улья́нов,[1] 영어: Vladimir Ilyich Lenin/Ulyanov, 문화어: 울라지미르 일리이츠 레닌,[2] 1870년 4월 22일(구력 4월 10일) ~ 1924년 1월 21일)과더불어서정치국원으로서같이더불어일해보자는제안이있었다이에대하여그러한지위직분직무를수행하기에는현저하게자질과배움이부족하여정중하게예의를갖추어고사하는것으로서처리토록지시명령처리기록되다이에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다아령啞鈴은각각의제안에대하여이건희이재용및중국황제및선비족수장훈족수장아플레이아데스아종계의무단차용무단임대무단임차무단임대차무단공유이중영체등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무단대리대행참가참여동반동거동행하여내가나의가눈치채지못하거나알더라도어떻게할수없는상태로만들고나를죽이고자기를나로알게하는등의술수를쓰거나나의실체의식체를지옥유계만든맵매트릭스사설감옥사설정신사설병원사설형무소서재과거사고현장사건현장등에결박구속하고폭력무력위력위세구타폭행뺨치는위박겁박협박침박살인살해돈줄차단생계차단섹스차단사회차단인간관계차단사랑차단연애차단정상적범주내의쾌락차단등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무력화시키고장애자준장애유발후주먹질발길질조직폭력배흉악잔인악독사악악의적의부정적대로서포비아Phobia극단적잔인한힘에대한무뢰배적공포로서제압하여죽이고Willful자행arbitrary자행꼴리는대로자행하는개인실체ousia와이를목적으로하는단체또는집단을조직하거나이에가입또는그구성원으로활동한사람에대해서무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

정플레이아데스인34등급박종권정식서명처리

정플레이아데스인34등급박종권과현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지와있는나정식서명처리

Andromedagalacticsystem연합원로원

Lyra연합원로원

Vega연합원로원

Pleiades연합원로원

과거Pleiades연합원로원

Pleiades연방원로원

제17Atlantis연합문명평의회연합원로원

말데크연합원로원

무르데크연합원로원

조지 W. 부시(George Walker Bush, 1946년 ~ )를대리대행해보라는Amalek으로부터의제안이있었다이에대하여그러한지위직분직무를수행하기에는현저하게자질과배움이부족하여정중하게예의를갖추어고사하는것으로서처리토록지시명령처리기록되다이에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다아령啞鈴은각각의제안에대하여이건희이재용및중국황제및선비족수장훈족수장아플레이아데스아종계의무단차용무단임대무단임차무단임대차무단공유이중영체등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무단대리대행참가참여동반동거동행하여내가나의가눈치채지못하거나알더라도어떻게할수없는상태로만들고나를죽이고자기를나로알게하는등의술수를쓰거나나의실체의식체를지옥유계만든맵매트릭스사설감옥사설정신사설병원사설형무소서재과거사고현장사건현장등에결박구속하고폭력무력위력위세구타폭행뺨치는위박겁박협박침박살인살해돈줄차단생계차단섹스차단사회차단인간관계차단사랑차단연애차단정상적범주내의쾌락차단등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무력화시키고장애자준장애유발후주먹질발길질조직폭력배흉악잔인악독사악악의적의부정적대로서포비아Phobia극단적잔인한힘에대한무뢰배적공포로서제압하여죽이고Willful자행arbitrary자행꼴리는대로자행하는개인실체ousia와이를목적으로하는단체또는집단을조직하거나이에가입또는그구성원으로활동한사람에대해서무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

정플레이아데스인34등급박종권정식서명처리

정플레이아데스인34등급박종권과현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지와있는나정식서명처리

Andromedagalacticsystem연합원로원

Lyra연합원로원

Vega연합원로원

Pleiades연합원로원

과거Pleiades연합원로원

Pleiades연방원로원

제17Atlantis연합문명평의회연합원로원

말데크연합원로원

무르데크연합원로원

이에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다아령啞鈴은각각의제안에대하여이건희이재용및중국황제및선비족수장훈족수장아플레이아데스아종계의무단차용무단임대무단임차무단임대차무단공유이중영체등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무단대리대행참가참여동반동거동행하여내가나의가눈치채지못하거나알더라도어떻게할수없는상태로만들고나를죽이고자기를나로알게하는등의술수를쓰거나나의실체의식체를지옥유계만든맵매트릭스사설감옥사설정신사설병원사설형무소서재과거사고현장사건현장등에결박구속하고폭력무력위력위세구타폭행뺨치는위박겁박협박침박살인살해돈줄차단생계차단섹스차단사회차단인간관계차단사랑차단연애차단정상적범주내의쾌락차단등의수법수단방법도구tool로서무력화시키고장애자준장애유발후주먹질발길질조직폭력배흉악잔인악독사악악의적의부정적대로서포비아Phobia극단적잔인한힘에대한무뢰배적공포로서제압하여죽이고Willful자행arbitrary자행꼴리는대로자행하는개인실체ousia와이를목적으로하는단체또는집단을조직하거나이에가입또는그구성원으로활동한사람에대해서무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

정플레이아데스인34등급박종권정식서명처리

정플레이아데스인34등급박종권과현재지금여기이순간지금여기까지와있는나정식서명처리

Andromedagalacticsystem연합원로원

Lyra연합원로원

Vega연합원로원

Pleiades연합원로원

과거Pleiades연합원로원

Pleiades연방원로원

제17Atlantis연합문명평의회연합원로원

말데크연합원로원

무르데크연합원로원

HerbertClarkHoover (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964)에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

BC95000000년부정사음사건에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

Lee Kun-heeproject10억원보상개천에서용나기프로젝트에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

플레이아데스프로젝트Pleiadesproject에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

그레이트브리튼 및 북아일랜드 연합왕국의 총리관저에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

누가봐도아닌데누가봐도부적합불합치부적절한상황조건상태와실제적현실적인식의핵심적주체적실체로서의실제적현실적삶의현장이그렇게하는것이불가능한상태로서제압구속감금통제제재되어져상처받고사망된상태에있는자에게그러한제의를할경우중대모독으로간주하고나의내가가진모든것들을마구잡이로꼴리는대로가져다가쓰고자하며그와같은일을하기에턱없이부족한자들로하여금분수에넘치는짓을자행토록허용하여이에대하여아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

 

블레즈 파스칼 폭력이 짐승의 법칙인 것 같이 비폭력은 인간의 법칙이다. ─ 마하트마 간디 

Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov[b] (22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 – 21 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin,[c] was a Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as the first and founding head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 to 1924 and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924. Under his administration, Russia, and later the Soviet Union, became a one-party socialist state governed by the Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, his developments to the ideology are called Leninism.

Born to an upper-middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brother's 1887 execution. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Russian Empire's Tsarist government, he devoted the following years to a law degree. He moved to Saint Petersburg in 1893 and became a senior Marxist activist. In 1897, he was arrested for sedition and exiled to Shushenskoye in Siberia for three years, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya. After his exile, he moved to Western Europe, where he became a prominent theorist in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). In 1903, he took a key role in the RSDLP ideological split, leading the Bolshevik faction against Julius Martov's Mensheviks. Following Russia's failed Revolution of 1905, he campaigned for the First World War to be transformed into a Europe-wide proletarian revolution, which, as a Marxist, he believed would cause the overthrow of capitalism and its replacement with socialism. After the 1917 February Revolution ousted the Tsar and established a Provisional Government, he returned to Russia to play a leading role in the October Revolution in which the Bolsheviks overthrew the new regime.

Lenin's Bolshevik government initially shared power with the Left Socialist Revolutionaries, elected soviets, and a multi-party Constituent Assembly, although by 1918 it had centralised power in the new Communist Party. Lenin's administration redistributed land among the peasantry and nationalised banks and large-scale industry. It withdrew from the First World War by signing a treaty conceding territory to the Central Powers, and promoted world revolution through the Communist International. Opponents were suppressed in the Red Terror, a violent campaign administered by the state security services; tens of thousands were killed or interned in concentration camps. His administration defeated right and left-wing anti-Bolshevik armies in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922 and oversaw the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921. Responding to wartime devastation, famine, and popular uprisings, in 1921 Lenin encouraged economic growth through the New Economic Policy. Several non-Russian nations had secured independence from the Russian Republic after 1917, but five were forcibly re-united into the new Soviet Union in 1922, while others repelled Soviet invasions. His health failing, Lenin died in Gorki, with Joseph Stalin succeeding him as the pre-eminent figure in the Soviet government.

Widely considered one of the most significant and influential figures of the 20th century, Lenin was the posthumous subject of a pervasive personality cult within the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991. He became an ideological figurehead behind Marxism–Leninism and a prominent influence over the international communist movement. A controversial and highly divisive historical figure, Lenin is viewed by his supporters as a champion of socialism and the working class. Meanwhile, Lenin's critics accuse him of establishing a totalitarian dictatorship which oversaw mass killings and political repression.

The Politburo Standing Committee (PSC), officially the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, is a committee consisting of the top leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Historically it has been composed of five to eleven members, and currently has seven members. Its officially mandated purpose is to conduct policy discussions and make decisions on major issues when the Politburo, a larger decision-making body, is not in session. According to the party's constitution, the General Secretary of the Central Committee must also be a member of the Politburo Standing Committee.[3]

According to the party's Constitution, the party's Central Committee elects the Politburo Standing Committee. In practice, however, this is only a formality. The method by which membership is determined has evolved over time. During the Mao Zedong era, Mao himself selected and expelled members, while during the Deng Xiaoping era consultations among party elders on the Central Advisory Commission determined membership. Since the 1990s, Politburo membership has been determined through deliberations and straw polls by incumbent and retired members of both the Politburo and the Standing Committee.[4][5]

The PSC is theoretically responsible to the Politburo, which is in turn responsible to the larger Central Committee. In practice, the Standing Committee is supreme over its parent bodies. Additionally, because China is a one-party state, Standing Committee decisions de facto have the force of law. Its membership is closely watched by both the national media as well as political watchers abroad. Historically, the role of the PSC has varied and evolved. During the Cultural Revolution, for example, the PSC had little power.

The membership of the PSC is strictly ranked in protocol sequence. Historically, the General Secretary (or Party Chairman) has been ranked first; the rankings of other leaders have varied over time. Since the 1990s, the General Secretary, President, Premier, first-ranked Vice Premier, Chairman of the National People's Congress, the Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, the Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the party's top anti-graft body, and the first-ranked Secretary of the Secretariat have consistently also been members of the Politburo Standing Committee.[6] The portfolios of additional members varied.

Illustration from Phillip Medhurst Collection depicting Joshua fighting Amalek (Exodus 17).

Amalek (/ˈæməlɛk/;[1] Hebrew: עֲמָלֵק, 'Ămālēq, Arabic: عماليق 'Amālīq) was a nation described in the Hebrew Bible as a staunch enemy of the Israelites. The name "Amalek" can refer to the nation's founder, a grandson of Esau; his descendants, the Amalekites; or the territories of Amalek, which they inhabited.

The prime minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government of the United Kingdom. The prime minister advises the sovereign on the exercise of much of the royal prerogative, chairs the Cabinet and selects its ministers. As modern prime ministers hold office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the House of Commons, they sit as members of Parliament.

The office of prime minister is not established by any statute or constitutional document, but exists only by long-established convention, whereby the reigning monarch appoints as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons;[3] this individual is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber.

The prime minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury, Minister for the Civil Service and the minister responsible for national security.[4]: p.22  Indeed, certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to prime ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury. In 2019, the office of Minister for the Union was established; Boris Johnson became the first prime minister to hold this title.[5]

Rishi Sunak has been the incumbent prime minister since 25 October 2022.[6]

The Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Russian: Полити́ческое бюро́ Центра́льного комите́та Коммунисти́ческой па́ртии Сове́тского Сою́за, abbreviated: Политбюро ЦК КПСС, Politbyuro TsK KPSS), or Politburo (Russian: Политбюро, IPA: [pəlʲɪtbʲʊˈro]) was the highest policy-making authority within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power.[1] By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 per cent of the world population at the time,[2] and by 1920, it covered 35.5 million km2 (13.7 million sq mi),[3] 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the Sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.[4]

During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated,[5] England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following the 1707 Act of Union with Scotland) the dominant colonial power in North America. Britain became the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.

The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. British attention then turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America.[6][7] Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were reclassified as Dominions.

By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the transfer of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire.[8][9] Fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain a common monarch, currently King Charles III.

VEGA연합원로원은 지구인들에 대해서 특히 대영제국, 영국, 미국등에 대해서 지구인수준과 등급,지위,서열(지구인최고등급 +6등급기준)상에서 비춰볼때 그 한계선내를 기준으로 하여 알아도 되는 것들과 알아야 하는 것들에 대한 표준안을 제정하여 적용토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 지구세계의 문제점은 아플레이아데스인(26등급,원본원16등급수준)들과 파충류종족들 및 선비족(플레이아데스아종계), 훈족(아플레이아데스계통)들이 지배권력층이 되어 있는 관계로서, 지구행성의 특성상, 지구인들의 발전진화단계상 부적절하게 높은 정보와 지식이 폭넓게 전달되고 공유되고 알아지고 있는바, 이는 오히려 지구체계에 있어서 발전진화 및 정상운영체계면에서 저해요인이 되고 있으므로, 이에 참조하여, 아플레이아데스인(훈족, 아틸라로서 훗날의 펠레콘계파)플레이아데스아종계통(선비족, 수당제국황제들과 선비족수장계통, 오부흉노수장계통)아플레이아데스인(미국 오클라호마지역 거주 프타, 오자와 계파)들과 JEHOVAH원대(OBERON성주계통,제3우주에서오는영향들)JEHOVAH1대(OBERON맹주, 제3우주계통에서오는영향들)JEHOVAH2대,JEHOVAH3대,JEHOVAH4대,JEHOVAH5대,JEHOVAH6대, JEHOVAH7대 및 관련관계연관된 JEHOVAH FAMILY계통에 대한 강력한 제재와 규제, 금지, 억압정책을 추진하며, 지구인등급지위서열에 맞는 수준(최고등급+8등급으로제한)에서 살도록 규제하며, 만일 불응할 경우, 지구행성에서 추방하여 처벌하는 것으로서 처리토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 지구인등급 (-5등급 ~ +12등급, 그러나 +6등급이상은 불가능하며, 부처의 경우 +8등급이나 해탈각성한 반열일 경우에 해당) 지구인들이 알아도 되는 선의 정보개방은 +5등급을 기준으로 정보공개개방기준을 설정하여 적용토록 지시명령처리기록되다.이에대하여무시묵살거부불응위배위반시에는아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

나의등급지위서열을탈취찬탈하여자신의계급또는등급서열지위보다높은혹은계급또는등급서열지위에불합치위배위반되는상대와고급체고급유체섹스난행음행부정사음부정정교를즐기고상대를만족시킨결과로서국가원수직일인지하만인지상의중요한직책을원본래원본심원능력원지위원등급원실력원그릇원실제에현저하게위배위반되게거머쥔놈에대해서아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

현재지금이순간지금여기까지온나에대하여아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여관수처리하다나의등급지위서열을탈취찬탈하여자신의계급또는등급서열지위보다높은혹은계급또는등급서열지위에불합치위배위반되는상대와고급체고급유체섹스난행음행부정사음부정정교를즐기고상대를만족시킨결과로서국가원수직일인지하만인지상의중요한직책을원본래원본심원능력원지위원등급원실력원그릇원실제에현저하게위배위반되게거머쥔놈에대해서아령啞鈴이무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록아령啞鈴이지속적항구적항속적종신적영원적영구적영겁적영속적으로일괄소급하여무조건참수형에처하고무조건살해사형제거소멸추방토록실시실행실천관수처리하다Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right. Celestial bodies are shown enlarged in size to be able to understand their shapes.Laniakea SCl

Chakras (UK: /ˈtʃʌkrəz/, US: /ˈtʃɑːkrəz/ CHUK-rəz, CHAH-krəz;[2] Sanskrit: चक्र, romanized: cakra, lit. 'wheel, circle'; Pali: cakka) are various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra, or the esoteric or inner traditions of Hinduism.[3][4][5]

The concept of the chakra arose in the early traditions of Hinduism.[6] Beliefs differ between the Indian religions, with many Buddhist texts consistently mentioning five chakras, while Hindu sources reference six or seven.[3][4][7] Early Sanskrit texts speak of them both as meditative visualizations combining flowers and mantras and as physical entities in the body.[7] Within Kundalini yoga, the techniques of breathing exercises, visualizations, mudras, bandhas, kriyas, and mantras are focused on manipulating the flow of subtle energy through chakras.[6][8]

The modern Western chakra system arose from multiple sources, starting in the 1880s, followed by Sir John Woodroffe's 1919 book The Serpent Power, and Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras, which introduced the seven rainbow colours for the chakras. Psychological and other attributes, and a wide range of supposed correspondences with other systems such as alchemy, astrology, gemstones, homeopathy, Kabbalah and Tarot were added later.

Etymology

See also: Yantra and Mandala

Lexically, chakra is the Indic reflex of an ancestral Indo-European form *kʷékʷlos, whence also "wheel" and "cycle" (Ancient Greek: κύκλος, romanized: kýklos).[9][3][4] It has both literal[10] and metaphorical uses, as in the "wheel of time" or "wheel of dharma", such as in Rigveda hymn verse 1.164.11,[11][12] pervasive in the earliest Vedic texts.

In Buddhism, especially in Theravada, the Pali noun cakka connotes "wheel".[13] Within the central "Tripitaka", the Buddha variously refers the "dhammacakka", or "wheel of dharma", connoting that this dharma, universal in its advocacy, should bear the marks characteristic of any temporal dispensation. The Buddha spoke of freedom from cycles in and of themselves, whether karmic, reincarnative, liberative, cognitive or emotional.[14]

In Jainism, the term chakra also means "wheel" and appears in various contexts in its ancient literature.[15] As in other Indian religions, chakra in esoteric theories in Jainism such as those by Buddhisagarsuri means a yogic energy center.[16]

Ancient history

See also: Yoga and Nadi (yoga)

The term chakra appears to first emerge within the Hindu Vedas, though not precisely in the sense of psychic energy centers, rather as chakravartin or the king who "turns the wheel of his empire" in all directions from a center, representing his influence and power.[17] The iconography popular in representing the Chakras, states the scholar David Gordon White, traces back to the five symbols of yajna, the Vedic fire altar: "square, circle, triangle, half moon and dumpling".[18]

The hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda mentions a renunciate yogi with a female named kunamnama. Literally, it means "she who is bent, coiled", representing both a minor goddess and one of many embedded enigmas and esoteric riddles within the Rigveda. Some scholars, such as D.G. White and Georg Feuerstein, have suggested that she may be a reference to kundalini shakti and a precursor to the terminology associated with the chakras in later tantric traditions.[19][20][21]

Breath channels (nāḍi) are mentioned in the classical Upanishads of Hinduism from the 1st millennium BCE,[22][23] but not psychic-energy chakra theories. Three classical Nadis are Ida, Pingala and Sushumna in which the central channel Sushumna is said to be foremost as per Kṣurikā-Upaniṣhad.[24] The latter, states David Gordon White, were introduced about 8th-century CE in Buddhist texts as hierarchies of inner energy centers, such as in the Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti.[22][25] These are called by various terms such as cakka, padma (lotus) or pitha (mound).[22] These medieval Buddhist texts mention only four chakras, while later Hindu texts such as the Kubjikāmata and Kaulajñānanirnaya expanded the list to many more.[22]

In contrast to White, according to Feuerstein, early Upanishads of Hinduism do mention chakras in the sense of "psychospiritual vortices", along with other terms found in tantra: prana or vayu (life energy) along with nadi (energy carrying arteries).[20] According to Gavin Flood, the ancient texts do not present chakra and kundalini-style yoga theories although these words appear in the earliest Vedic literature in many contexts. The chakra in the sense of four or more vital energy centers appear in the medieval era Hindu and Buddhist texts.[26][22]

Overview

An illustration of a Saiva Nath chakra system, folio 2 from the Nath Charit, 1823. Mehrangarh Museum Trust.

Chakra and divine energies

Shining, she holds

the noose made of the energy of will,

the hook which is energy of knowledge,

the bow and arrows made of energy of action.

Split into support and supported,

divided into eight, bearer of weapons,

arising from the chakra with eight points,

she has the ninefold chakra as a throne.

—Yoginihrdaya 53–54

(Translator: Andre Padoux)[27]

The Chakras are part of esoteric ideas and concepts about physiology and psychic centers that emerged across Indian traditions.[22][28] The belief held that human life simultaneously exists in two parallel dimensions, one "physical body" (sthula sarira) and other "psychological, emotional, mind, non-physical" it is called the "subtle body" (sukshma sarira).[29][note 1] This subtle body is energy, while the physical body is mass. The psyche or mind plane corresponds to and interacts with the body plane, and the belief holds that the body and the mind mutually affect each other.[5] The subtle body consists of nadi (energy channels) connected by nodes of psychic energy called chakra.[3] The belief grew into extensive elaboration, with some suggesting 88,000 chakras throughout the subtle body. The number of major chakras varied between various traditions, but they typically ranged between four and seven.[3][4] Nyingmapa Vajrayana Buddhist teachings mention eight chakras and there is a complete yogic system for each of them.

The important chakras are stated in Hindu and Buddhist texts to be arranged in a column along the spinal cord, from its base to the top of the head, connected by vertical channels.[5][6] The tantric traditions sought to master them, awaken and energize them through various breathing exercises or with assistance of a teacher. These chakras were also symbolically mapped to specific human physiological capacity, seed syllables (bija), sounds, subtle elements (tanmatra), in some cases deities, colors and other motifs.[3][5][31]

Belief in the chakra system of Hinduism and Buddhism differs from the historic Chinese system of meridians in acupuncture.[6] Unlike the latter, the chakra relates to subtle body, wherein it has a position but no definite nervous node or precise physical connection. The tantric systems envision it as continually present, highly relevant and a means to psychic and emotional energy. It is useful in a type of yogic rituals and meditative discovery of radiant inner energy (prana flows) and mind-body connections.[6][32] The meditation is aided by extensive symbology, mantras, diagrams, models (deity and mandala). The practitioner proceeds step by step from perceptible models, to increasingly abstract models where deity and external mandala are abandoned, inner self and internal mandalas are awakened.[33][34]

These ideas are not unique to Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Similar and overlapping concepts emerged in other cultures in the East and the West, and these are variously called by other names such as subtle body, spirit body, esoteric anatomy, sidereal body and etheric body.[35][36][30] According to Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, professors of Religious studies known for their studies on Yoga and esoteric traditions:

Ideas and practices involving so-called 'subtle bodies' have existed for many centuries in many parts of the world. (...) Virtually all human cultures known to us have some kind of concept of mind, spirit or soul as distinct from the physical body, if only to explain experiences such as sleep and dreaming. (...) An important subset of subtle-body practices, found particularly in Indian and Tibetan Tantric traditions, and in similar Chinese practices, involves the idea of an internal 'subtle physiology' of the body (or rather of the body-mind complex) made up of channels through which substances of some kind flow, and points of intersection at which these channels come together. In the Indian tradition the channels are known as nadi and the points of intersection as cakra.

— Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West: Between Mind and Body[37]

Contrast with classical yoga

Chakra and related beliefs have been important to the esoteric traditions, but they are not directly related to mainstream yoga.[38] According to the Indologist Edwin Bryant and other scholars, the goals of classical yoga such as spiritual liberation (freedom, self-knowledge, moksha) is "attained entirely differently in classical yoga, and the cakra / nadi / kundalini physiology is completely peripheral to it."[39][40]

Number of chakras

There is no consensus in Hinduism about the number of chakras because the concept of chakras has been evolved and interpreted differently by various sects, schools of thought, and spiritual traditions within Hinduism over the centuries. While some traditions follow the seven main chakra system as described in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, others recognize additional chakras or a different number of chakras. The lack of a universally accepted standard has led to variation and diversity in the interpretation and understanding of chakras within Hinduism. There are several sects within Hinduism that have their own unique interpretations and understandings of the concept of chakras. Here are some of the major sects that have different perspectives on chakras:

Bhakti Yoga: In Bhakti Yoga, the number of chakras varies, but the focus is often on the heart chakra as the center of spiritual devotion.

Ayurveda (3): In Ayurveda, there are three main chakras, known as the "Marmas," which are considered to be the focal points of the physical, mental, and spiritual energies in the body.

Shaivism (5): In Shaivism, there are five chakras, with the focus being on the heart and crown chakras.

Tantra (6): In Tantra, there are traditionally said to be four to six chakras, with the crown chakra being considered the highest.

Kashmir Shaivism (6-7): In Kashmir Shaivism, there are six or seven chakras, with the focus being on the awakening of the divine energy within.

Patanjali Yoga (7): Follows the seven main chakra system as described in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra.

Hatha Yoga (7): In Hatha Yoga, there are seven main chakras, but some Hatha Yoga traditions also recognize additional chakras.

Kundalini Yoga (7): In Kundalini Yoga, there are seven main chakras, but additional minor chakras are also recognized.

Nath Tradition (8): In the Nath tradition, there are eight main chakras, with the emphasis being on the awakening of the divine energy through these centers.

Vaishnavism (12): In Vaishnavism, there are twelve chakras, with the emphasis being on the spiritual ascent through these centers.

Classical traditions

In meditation, chakras are often visualised in different ways, such as a lotus flower, or a disc containing a particular deity.

The classical eastern traditions, particularly those that developed in India during the 1st millennium AD, primarily describe nadi and chakra in a "subtle body" context.[41] To them, they are in same dimension as of the psyche-mind reality that is invisible yet real. In the nadi and cakra flow the prana (breath, life energy).[41][42] The concept of "life energy" varies between the texts, ranging from simple inhalation-exhalation to far more complex association with breath-mind-emotions-sexual energy.[41] This prana or essence is what vanishes when a person dies, leaving a gross body. Some of this concept states this subtle body is what withdraws within, when one sleeps. All of it is believed to be reachable, awake-able and important for an individual's body-mind health, and how one relates to other people in one's life.[41] This subtle body network of nadi and chakra is, according to some later Indian theories and many new age speculations, closely associated with emotions.[41][43]

Hindu Tantra

Main article: Kundalini energy

Esoteric traditions in Hinduism mention numerous numbers and arrangements of chakras, of which a classical system of six-plus-one, the last being the Sahasrara, is most prevalent.[3][4][5] This seven-part system, central to the core texts of hatha yoga, is one among many systems found in Hindu tantric literature. Hindu Tantra associates six Yoginis with six places in the subtle body, corresponding to the six chakras of the six-plus-one system.[44]

Association of six Yoginis with chakra locations in the Rudrayamala Tantra[44]

Place in subtle body Yogini

1. Muladhara Dakini

2. Svadhisthana Rakini

3. Manipura Lakini

4. Anahata Kakini

5. Vishuddhi Shakini

6. Ajna Hakini

The Chakra methodology is extensively developed in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism. It is an important concept along with yantras, mandalas and kundalini yoga in its practice. Chakra in Shakta tantrism means circle, an "energy center" within, as well as being a term for group rituals such as in chakra-puja (worship within a circle) which may or may not involve tantra practice.[45] The cakra-based system is a part of the meditative exercises that came to be known as yoga.[46]

Buddhist Tantra

Main article: Vajrayana

A Tibetan illustration of the subtle body showing the central channel and two side channels as well as five chakras.

A Tibetan thangka with a diagram showing six chakras—a root chakra, a chakra at the sex organs, one at the navel, one at the heart, another at the throat and the last one located at the crown.[47]

The esoteric traditions in Buddhism generally teach four chakras.[3] In some early Buddhist sources, these chakras are identified as: manipura (navel), anahata (heart), vishuddha (throat) and ushnisha kamala (crown).[48] In one development within the Nyingma lineage of the Mantrayana of Tibetan Buddhism a popular conceptualization of chakras in increasing subtlety and increasing order is as follows: Nirmanakaya (gross self), Sambhogakaya (subtle self), Dharmakaya (causal self), and Mahasukhakaya (non-dual self), each vaguely and indirectly corresponding to the categories within the Shaiva Mantramarga universe, i.e., Svadhisthana, Anahata, Visuddha, Sahasrara, etc.[49] However, depending on the meditational tradition, these vary between three and six.[48] The chakras are considered psycho-spiritual constituents, each bearing meaningful correspondences to cosmic processes and their postulated Buddha counterpart.[50][48]

A system of five chakras is common among the Mother class of Tantras and these five chakras along with their correspondences are:[51]

Basal chakra (Element: Earth, Buddha: Amoghasiddhi, Bija mantra: LAM)

Abdominal chakra (Element: Water, Buddha: Ratnasambhava, Bija mantra: VAM)

Heart chakra (Element: Fire, Buddha: Akshobhya, Bija mantra: RAM)

Throat chakra (Element: Wind, Buddha: Amitabha, Bija mantra: YAM)

Crown chakra (Element: Space, Buddha: Vairochana, Bija mantra: KHAM)

Chakras clearly play a key role in Tibetan Buddhism, and are considered to be the pivotal providence of Tantric thinking. And, the precise use of the chakras across the gamut of tantric sadhanas gives little space to doubt the primary efficacy of Tibetan Buddhism as distinct religious agency, that being that precise revelation that, without Tantra there would be no Chakras, but more importantly, without Chakras, there is no Tibetan Buddhism. The highest practices in Tibetan Buddhism point to the ability to bring the subtle pranas of an entity into alignment with the central channel, and to thus penetrate the realisation of the ultimate unity, namely, the "organic harmony" of one's individual consciousness of Wisdom with the co-attainment of All-embracing Love, thus synthesizing a direct cognition of absolute Buddhahood.[52]

According to Samuel, the buddhist esoteric systems developed cakra and nadi as "central to their soteriological process".[53] The theories were sometimes, but not always, coupled with a unique system of physical exercises, called yantra yoga or 'phrul 'khor.

Chakras, according to the Bon tradition, enable the gestalt of experience, with each of the five major chakras, being psychologically linked with the five experiential qualities of unenlightened consciousness, the six realms of woe.[54]

The tsa lung practice embodied in the Trul khor lineage, unbaffles the primary channels, thus activating and circulating liberating prana. Yoga awakens the deep mind, thus bringing forth positive attributes, inherent gestalts, and virtuous qualities. In a computer analogy, the screen of one's consciousness is slated and an attribute-bearing file is called up that contains necessary positive or negative, supportive qualities.[54]

Tantric practice is said to eventually transform all experience into clear light. The practice aims to liberate from all negative conditioning, and the deep cognitive salvation of freedom from control and unity of perception and cognition.[54]

The seven chakra system

One widely popular schema of seven chakras is as follows, from bottom to top: 1. Muladhara 2. Svadhisthana 3. Manipura 4. Anahata 5. Vishuddhi 6. Ajna 7. Sahasrara.[4] The colours are modern.[55]

The more common and most studied chakra system incorporates six major chakras along with a seventh center generally not regarded as a chakra. These points are arranged vertically along the axial channel (sushumna nadi in Hindu texts, Avadhuti in some Buddhist texts).[56] According to Gavin Flood, this system of six chakras plus the sahasrara "center" at the crown first appears in the Kubjikāmata-tantra, an 11th-century Kaula work.[57]

It was this chakra system that was translated in the early 20th century by Sir John Woodroffe (also called Arthur Avalon) in the text The Serpent Power. Avalon translated the Hindu text Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa meaning the examination (nirūpaṇa) of the seven (ṣaṭ) chakras (cakra).[58]

The Chakras are traditionally considered meditation aids. The yogi progresses from lower chakras to the highest chakra blossoming in the crown of the head, internalizing the journey of spiritual ascent.[59] In both the Hindu kundalini and Buddhist candali traditions, the chakras are pierced by a dormant energy residing near or in the lowest chakra. In Hindu texts she is known as Kundalini, while in Buddhist texts she is called Candali or Tummo (Tibetan: gtum mo, "fierce one").[60]

Below are the common new age description of these six chakras and the seventh point known as sahasrara. This new age version incorporates the Newtonian colors of the rainbow not found in any ancient Indian system.[55]

Image of chakra Name Sanskrit

(Translation) Location No. of

petals Modern

colour Seed

syllable Description

Sahasrara Mandala.svg

Sahasrara सहस्रार

"Thousand-petaled" Crown 1000 Multi or violet — Highest spiritual centre, pure consciousness, containing neither object nor subject. When the feminine Kundalini Shakti rises to this point, it unites with the masculine Shiva, giving self-realization and samadhi.[4] In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Mahasukha, the petal lotus of "Great Bliss" corresponding to the fourth state of Four Noble Truths.[60]

Ajna Mandala.svg

Ajna or Agya आज्ञा

"Command" Between

eyebrows 2 Indigo — Guru chakra, or in New Age usage third-eye chakra, the subtle center of energy, where the tantra guru touches the seeker during the initiation ritual. He or she commands the awakened kundalini to pass through this centre.[4]

Vishuddha Mandala.svg

Vishuddha विशुद्ध

"Purest" Throat 16 Blue Ham

(space) 16 petals covered with the sixteen Sanskrit vowels. Associated with the element of space (akasha). The residing deity is Panchavaktra shiva, with 5 heads and 4 arms, and the Shakti is Shakini.[4]

In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Sambhoga and is generally considered to be the petal lotus of "Enjoyment" corresponding to the third state of Four Noble Truths.[60]

Anahata Mandala.svg

Anahata अनाहत

"Unstruck" Heart 12 Green Yam

(air) Within it is a yantra of two intersecting triangles, forming a hexagram, symbolising a union of the male and female, and the element of air (vayu). The presiding deity is Ishana Rudra Shiva, and the Shakti is Kakini.[4]

In esoteric Buddhism, this Chakra is called Dharma and is generally considered to be the petal lotus of "Essential nature" and corresponding to the second state of Four Noble Truths.[60]

Manipura Mandala.svg

Manipura मणिपूर

"Jewel city" Navel 10 Yellow Ram

(fire) For the Nath yogi meditation system, this is described as the Madhyama-Shakti or the intermediate stage of self-discovery.[59] This chakra is represented as a downward pointing triangle representing fire in the middle of a lotus with ten petals. The presiding deity is Braddha Rudra, with Lakini as the Shakti.[4]

Swadhisthana Mandala.svg

Svadhishthana स्वाधिष्ठान

"Where the self

is established" Root of

sexual organs 6 Orange Vam

(water) Svadhisthana is represented with a lotus within which is a crescent moon symbolizing the water element. The presiding deity is Brahma, with the Shakti being Rakini (or Chakini).[4]

In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Nirmana, the petal lotus of "Creation" and corresponding to the first state of Four Noble Truths.[60]

Muladhara Mandala.svg

Muladhara मूलाधार

"Root" Base of

spine 4 Red Lam

(earth) Dormant Kundalini is often said to be resting here, wrapped three and a half, or seven or twelve times. Sometimes she is wrapped around the black Svayambhu linga, the lowest of three obstructions to her full rising (also known as knots or granthis).[61] It is symbolised as a four-petaled lotus with a yellow square at its center representing the element of earth.[4]

The seed syllable is Lam for the earth element. All sounds, words and mantras in their dormant form rest in the muladhara chakra, where Ganesha resides,[62] while the Shakti is Dakini.[63] The associated animal is the elephant.[64]

Western chakra system

Main article: Esotericism

History

Chakra positions in supposed relation to nervous plexuses, from Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras

Kurt Leland, for the Theosophical Society in America, concluded that the western chakra system was produced by an "unintentional collaboration" of many groups of people: esotericists and clairvoyants, often theosophical; Indologists; the scholar of myth, Joseph Campbell; the founders of the Esalen Institute and the psychological tradition of Carl Jung; the colour system of Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras,[65] treated as traditional lore by some modern Indian yogis; and energy healers such as Barbara Brennan.[55][66] Leland states that far from being traditional, the two main elements of the modern system, the rainbow colours and the list of qualities, first appeared together only in 1977.[55]

The concept of a set of seven chakras came to the West in the 1880s; at that time each chakra was associated with a nerve plexus.[55] In 1918, Sir John Woodroffe, alias Arthur Avalon, translated two Indian texts, the Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa and the Pādukā-Pañcaka, and in his book The Serpent Power drew Western attention to the seven chakra theory.[67]

In the 1920s, each of the seven chakras was associated with an endocrine gland,[55] a tradition that has persisted.[68][69][70] More recently, the lower six chakras have been linked to both nerve plexuses and glands.[71] The seven rainbow colours were added by Leadbeater in 1927; a variant system in the 1930s proposed six colours plus white.[55] Leadbeater's theory was influenced by Johann Georg Gichtel's 1696 book Theosophia Practica, which mentioned inner "force centres".[72]

Psychological and other attributes such as layers of the aura, developmental stages, associated diseases, Aristotelian elements, emotions, and states of consciousness were added still later.[55] A wide range of supposed correspondences such as with alchemical metals, astrological signs and planets, foods, herbs, gemstones, homeopathic remedies, Kabbalistic spheres, musical notes, totem animals, and Tarot cards have also been proposed.[55]

New Age

Further information: New Age

In Anatomy of the Spirit (1996), Caroline Myss described the function of chakras as follows: "Every thought and experience you've ever had in your life gets filtered through these chakra databases. Each event is recorded into your cells...".[73] The chakras are described as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the spine to the top of the head. New Age practices often associate each chakra with a certain colour. In various traditions, chakras are associated with multiple physiological functions, an aspect of consciousness, a classical element, and other distinguishing characteristics; these do not correspond to those used in ancient Indian systems. The chakras are visualised as lotuses or flowers with a different number of petals in every chakra.[55]

The chakras are thought to vitalise the physical body and to be associated with interactions of a physical, emotional and mental nature. They are considered loci of life energy or prana (which New Age belief equates with shakti, qi in Chinese, ki in Japanese, koach-ha-guf[74] in Hebrew, bios in Greek, and aether in both Greek and English), which is thought to flow among them along pathways called nadi. The function of the chakras is to spin and draw in this energy to keep the spiritual, mental, emotional and physical health of the body in balance.[75]

Rudolf Steiner considered the chakra system to be dynamic and evolving. He suggested that this system has become different for modern people than it was in ancient times and that it will, in turn, be radically different in future times.[76][77][78] Steiner described a sequence of development that begins with the upper chakras and moves down, rather than moving in the opposite direction. He gave suggestions on how to develop the chakras through disciplining thoughts, feelings, and will.[79] According to Florin Lowndes, a "spiritual student" can further develop and deepen or elevate thinking consciousness when taking the step from the "ancient path" of schooling to the "new path" represented by Steiner's The Philosophy of Freedom.[80]

Skeptical response

Further information: Scientific skepticism

The not-for-profit Edinburgh Skeptics Society states that despite their popularity, "there has never been any evidence for these meridian lines or chakras". It adds that while practitioners sometimes cite "scientific evidence" for their claims, such evidence is often "incredibly shaky".[81]

See also

Hinduism portal

Aura

Dantian—energy centre in Chinese Taoist systems

Surya Namaskar—the Sun Salutation, in which each posture is sometimes associated with a chakra and a mantra

Notes

 The roots to this belief are found in Samkhya and Vedanta which attempt to conceptualize the permanent soul and impermanent body as interacting in three overlapping states: the gross body (sthula sarira), the subtle body (sukshma sarira), and causal body (karana sarira). These ideas emerged to address questions relating to the nature of body and soul, how and why they interact while one is awake, one is asleep and over the conception-birth-growth-decay-death-rebirth cycle.[29][30]